Running head: MUSCLE DYSMORPHIA WITHIN GENDER AND SPORT

Muscle Dysmorphia: Profiling an Eating Pathology in Potentially Symptomatic Men and Women Within the Athletic Arena

Nicholas Kicior

St. Bonaventure University

Abstract

Muscle Dysmorphia: Profiling an Eating Pathology in Potentially Symptomatic Men and Women Within the Athletic Arena

Eating pathologies and treatments have been at the crux of a number of past investigations. With each new study, researchers and clinicians gain a deeper insight into the unpredictable realm of irregular eating patterns. Only recently, however, has one specific form of eating disorders been investigated.

Muscle Dysmorphia (MD), known as bigorexia or “reverse anorexia,” is a specific form of a more general disorder known as body dysmorphic disorder, in which an individual exhibits a number of dysfunctional behaviors. Muscularly dysmorphic individuals constantly obsess over their perceived small and underdeveloped bodies. They compulsively exercise in order to increase muscle mass and work relentlessly to attain their own ideal body image. In addition, those who have this disorder may avoid situations in which they may need to expose their body and will consequently wear baggy clothes everywhere in order to cover their allegedly puny body. The neurotic and lengthy workouts may cause these individuals to miss important events in their lives and jeopardize important relationships, which could ultimately isolate them from their friends, family, and society. Because these individuals are working to achieve an impossible ideal, they are forced to fight biology and push their bodies to the maximum. In order to aide in building muscle, muscularly dysmorphic individuals may begin to use anabolic steroids or engage in certain diets that include inordinate amounts of calories, creotine, or protein, which could potentially have severe physiological affects.

There are many bio-psycho-social factors that may contribute to the presence of MD. Changes in the human brain at the time of puberty, caused by the release of hormones raises key developmental questions in relation to critical periods when certain body image attitudes may be formed. Also, because MD is a derivative of body dysmorphic disorder, MD can be considered as an obsessive-compulsive disorder, which can be linked to certain psychopathologies. Finally, certain societal and cultural trends may influence the development of MD. For example, research has shown the recent impact of the media on males and their body perception (Fawkner & McMurray, 2002; Leit, Gray, Pope, 2002).

Also linked to body image perceptions is self-esteem. When an individual has low self-esteem, they become increasingly vulnerable to factors that may elicit irregular eating patterns, whether it anorexia, bulimia, or MD. Those with MD have a poorer body image and are less happy with their bodies, which is similar to those who have anorexia or bulimia (Choi, Pope, Olivardia, 2002). The compulsive drive for muscularity has been shown to be negatively correlated with self-esteem.

In an investigation conducted by McCreary and Sasse (2002), it was shown that young women were more likely to be dieting to lose weight, while young men were more likely to be dieting to gain weight and muscle mass. Researchers have shown that between 28% and 68% of normal weight boys are trying to, or want to, gain weight, even though there is no physical or health-related reason (Cohn et al., 1987).

Certain sports, such as football or rugby, necessitate that players be muscular in order to have optimal performance. When players excessively work out, they are simply seen as having a healthy drive to do well as an athlete (Chung, 2001). In addition, it may be possible that certain attitudes about body image may be particular to each sport. In research conducted by McKay Parks and Read (1997) comparing football players to cross-country runners, it was shown that 80% of football players wanted to increase their body weight. They, however, reported more positive responses and attitudes toward eating, weight control, and body satisfaction. Cross-country runners reported lower Body Esteem scores and expressed a desire to lose weight and be thinner.

It is important to be able to distinguish between working toward a goal within a sport by using weights to increase performance and actually having MD or exhibiting its symptoms. When behaviors of normal motivation cross over into dysfunctional patterns and begin to affect one’s life, then there may be cause for concern.

The purpose of this investigation is to shed light on what types of eating characteristics a male and female will have within two types of sport. It is my hypothesis that females will exhibit nearly the same irregular perceptions of body type as men in the “large body type sport” (rugby), meaning that both genders will want to be more muscular in order to optimize their performance within the sport and move toward a goal of becoming the “ideal” body type that the sport necessitates. They will exhibit almost equal amounts of muscularly dysmorphic sympotoms, with the males slightly exceeding the females by exhibiting more MD symptoms. This would be due to past research supporting that more males than females desire a larger body type.

In the “small body type sport” (cross-country), scores for both populations will be significantly lower than that of rugby. In addition, there will be a larger gap between gender since females normally gravitate toward smaller body types and when introduced into a sport where they must attain it in order to be athletically successful, their predisposition to be thin will be drastically enhanced, leaving them to show little or no signs of MD. They will, in turn, exhibit many symptoms of opposite eating pathologies (anorexia and bulimia nervosa), since it is beneficial to weigh less in this particular sport. This could show that gender and sport play a role in determining the type of eating pattern one will engage in. Also, on particular questions from the questionnaire, the relationships of Muscle Dysmorphia to certain attitudes will be analyzed across gender and sport. Body Mass Index (BMI) will also be calculated for each participant to determine whether or not the person is under or over weight and will then be compared to that of his or her ideal body weight to establish whether or not the person has any type of eating pathology.

Method

Participants

A convenient sample of approximately 80 undergraduate athletes (20 male rugby players, 20 male cross-country runners, 20 female rugby players, and 20 female cross-country runners) will be selected due to contrasts in body size.

Questionnaires

The Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS) is a brief, valid 19-item self-report measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia symptoms, with 5 built-in subscales (Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, 2002). This scale, combined with selected questions from the Saint Bonaventure University Student Athlete Health Survey, will be given to all participants.

Results

A 2 x 2 (Gender x Sport) analysis of variance will be conducted with the MASS serving as the dependent measure. In addition to calculating mean scores, a correlation of sport and gender on particular survey questions will be analyzed in order to determine the specific relationships of Muscle Dysmorphia.

Discussion

One thing to keep in mind is that certain individuals may gravitate toward a certain sport. It is indeed rare for someone with an underdeveloped body to try out for the football team. This idea of self-selection may demonstrate that specific people with particular attitudes play specific sports. It is, however, not true that everyone within certain sports develops an eating disorder.

Future research should investigate different sports in order to determine whether or not there are certain specific types of irregular eating patterns associated with particular sports. In order to help answer why certain people acquire these types of disorders, there is a need for longitudinal studies in this area. In addition, an exploration of contributing factors and the distinctive psychopatholgies is warranted since research and characterization are in the preliminary stages.

References

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