DISPOSITIONAL OPTIMISM 1
Running head:
DISPOSITIONAL OPTIMISM’S EFFECT ON MEMORY RECALL
Recall Level: The Relationship Between Dispositional Optimism
and Autobiographical Memory
Brianna C. Eaton
St. Bonaventure University
Dispositional Optimism 2
Abstract
This study examined
undergraduate student’s level of dispositional optimism and their ability to
recall specific and general autobiographical memories. A modernized version of the Autobiographical
Memory Task was used to obtain specific and general autobiographical memories
for each participant. The more
optimistic a person is the less depression they will experience throughout
his/her life. It is predicted that there
will be a main effect for dispositional optimism, meaning that the individual’s
level of recalling specific autobiographical memories is going to depended on their
level of dispositional optimism. There
should also be an interaction between dispositional optimism and type of
autobiographical memory recalled. The
interaction between dispositional optimism and autobiographical memory type
will show that, the type of memory (specific/general) depended on whether or
not the individual is high or low in dispositional optimism. The higher the individual is in dispositional
optimism the more specific autobiographical memories will be recalled. The
lower the individual is in dispositional optimism the fewer specific
autobiographical memories will be recalled. The results confirm my main effect
and interaction prediction.
Dispositional Optimism 3
Recall Level: The Relationship Between Dispositional Optimism
and Autobiographical Memory
There have been many studies researching the effects depression has on
memory recall and the role of optimism in depression. Thorsten Barnhofer et al (2000), conducted
research in which it was found that depressed patients will experience problems
retrieving different types of memory. While other researches have investigated
the role optimism plays on depression.
Dispositional optimism is how a
person will choose to face life’s challenges and obstacles in either a positive
or negative way. Burger (2000, p. 522)
defines dispositional optimism as, “the extent to which a person typically
adopts an optimistic or pessimistic approach to dealing with life’s
challenges.” An individual how adapts to
a more positive view on life will be able to attack problems and stressors the
same way. This would enable the
individual to cope better and experience less depression throughout his/her
life span. In the current study, it
should be found that there will be a main effect for dispositional optimism on
autobiographical memory type recall.
Memory is the storage of information throughout a person’s life time. It includes his/her ability to encode, store and later retrieve the information (Matlin, 1999). In past research autobiographical memory has been used with depressed individuals. For that it has been studied that depressed individual’s have problems recalling certain types of memory more then others. Autobiographical memories consist of personal experiences and personal facts (Matlin, 1999 pg. 236). “Auto-biographical memory has become an increasingly popular topic because of the growing emphasis on ecological
Dispositional Optimism 4
validity.”
(Matlin, 1999 pg. 236) Ecological
validity is the generalization of the data received to be able to be compared
to real-life settings (Matilin, 1999).
It has this validity because autobiographical memories are personal and
have happened throughout the individual’s life.
In past research, the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-Positive found
that, “scores {…} remained significantly uniquely
related to depression when anxiety scores were particle out, suggesting that
infrequent positive thinking is specific to symptoms of depression rather than
anxiety” (Boelen & Jan, 2002 p. 854).
Past studies have also shown a negative correlation between
dispositional optimism and depression.
This means that when someone is high in dispositional optimism they
experience and express few symptoms of depression. One of the symptoms of depression that
someone high in dispositional optimism should not have is problems in recalling
specific autobiographical memories. In
additional studies, Marshall and Lang (1990) have “showed that optimism was
prospectively associated with important physical and mental health outcomes,
including lower levels of postpartum depression” (Marshall and Lang, (1900) p.
132). Carver and Gaines (1986, as cited
in Marshall and Lang 1990) have suggested that optimism has significant
consequences for depression. This means
that optimism plays a role in depression. The more optimistic a person is the
less depression they will experience throughout his/her life. In a different study by Fontaine and Jones
(1997), the results determined the usefulness of self-esteem and dispositional
optimism in assessing postpartum depression.
There have been many studies done looking at the affects that depression has on an individual’s memory. “Sinah, Parsons and Glenn (1989) reported a moderately strong correlation between depressive symptoms and overall cognitive impairment” (Uekermann et al, 2002 p. 1522). It is thought
Dispositional Optimism 5
that when a
person is depressed their brain processes information differently and that
certain types of memory are more difficult to recall then others. Barnhofer, Jong-Meyer, KleinpaB and Nikesch
(2002) found that retrieval processes of depressed patients may resemble or be influenced
by ruminative processes. In another
study by Uekermann, Duam, Schlebusch, Wiebel & Tenckmann (2002) it was
found that depression is associated with memory by interfering with the retrieval
process of certain information.
In the present study, researchers will be examining the relationship between dispositional optimism and memory as it is related to recall. It is hypothesized that individuals who score higher in dispositional optimism will recall more specific autobiographical memories than someone who has a low score. From past research it has been shown that dispositional optimism and depression are negatively correlated, along with memory to depression. The more depressed a individual is the less autobiographical memories a person will be able to recall.
It is predicted that there will be a
main effect of dispositional optimism on the type of autobiographical memory
type recalled. The amount of each type
of autobiographical memory recalled depends on the individual’s level of
dispositional optimism. The higher in
dispositional optimism they are the more specific autobiographical memories
they will recall. It is expected that
there will be an interaction between dispositional optimism and type of
autobiographical memory recalled. As an
individual’s level of dispositional optimism increases so will the number of
specific autobiographical memories recalled.
Dispositional Optimism 6
Methods
Subjects
Undergraduate students, both male
and female, ranging in age from 17 to 22 years old.
Materials
Optimism. The Life Orientation Test (LOT) will be used
for measuring each individual’s level of dispositional optimism. “This eight-item scale assessed the extent to
which individuals possess favorable expectations regarding life outcomes and
consists of four positively worded items and four negatively worded items”
(Marshall,1990 p. 133). The responses
are ranked on a four-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (4)
strongly agree. A high score means that
the individual is high in dispositional optimism; there for a low score means
that the individual is low in dispositional optimism.
Design and Procedures
The think-aloud autobiographical memory task is a modification of the original one used in past studies. “Participants were required to remember an autobiographical event following a cue word as detailed and vividly as possible and to verbalize everything that came to their mind in the process. Two negative (sad, lonely) and two positive (happy, safe) cue words were presented in alternating order.” (Barnhofer et al, 2002, p. 413). Participants will have a 2-minute period to verbalize their thoughts for each cue. Each participant will practice the think-aloud technique before actually being presented with the cues. Participant’s responses are recorded with the use of a tape-recorder that will be analyzed later
Dispositional Optimism 7
by two independent researchers. Which they will be analyzing the stream of memories for each cue. Then the memories are then classified into two different categorize: specific, and catergoric/general.
Specific are if
the participant recalled a memory that had happened during a specific time in
their life. For example, a cue word
triggered: their high-school graduation.
It is an event that is specific to the person and a time in their life. Catergoric/General are the memories that refer
to events that are repeated throughout the individual’s life (Barnhofer et al,
2002). For example if the individual has
been married a number of times and the cue word reminds them that in each
wedding they had the same type of flowers or music played. These are memories that are general to the
individual’s life, still personal; however, they have happened more then once.
Dispositional Optimism 8
Results
. One corresponds to a high score
and two is a low score. The means for all of the levels of the ANOVA are as
follows: high dispositional optimism/specific M= 90.3, high dispositional
optimism/general M=70.3, low dispositional optimism/specific M=54.5 and low
dispositional optimism/general the M=76.5.
The standard deviations for dispositional optimism is SD=0.509, for
specific autobiographical memories SD=23.929 and for general autobiographical
memories SD=0.730. The independent variables, dispositional
optimism and type of autobiographical memory were analyzed using a 2 (level
of optimism) x ( type of recall)
factorial design which showed a main
effect for dispositional optimism so that individuals who are high in
dispositional optimism will recall more specific autobiographical memories: F (1, 28) =25.924, p <.01. In Figure 1 it
shows the main effect for dispositional optimism and the interaction between
dispositional optimism and type of autobiographical memory type that was
recalled. With the interaction between
dispositional optimism and autobiographical memory type, the number of specific
autobiographical memories recalled depends on the individual’s level of
dispositional optimism. The higher in
dispositional optimism the more specific autobiographical memories they will
recall. When the individual has a low
score in dispositional optimism they will recall fewer specific
autobiographical memories.
Dispositional Optimism 9
Discussion
The
researchers in the present study found a main effect of dispositional optimism.
The recall of autobiographical memories is
depending on the type of individuals who are either high or low in
dispositional optimism and whether they are recalling general or specific
memories. Depending on whether the participant was high or low in dispositional
optimism effects memory recall for autobiographical memory type. This agrees with past studies looking at
memory and how depression effects recall ability in individuals. There was no main effect for autobiographical
memory type. This means the type of
autobiographical memory is not important to the number of memories
recalled. An interaction was found
between dispositional optimism and autobiographical memory type. The type of autobiographical memory (specific/general)
recalled depended on whether or not the individual was high or low in
dispositional optimism. The interaction between
dispositional optimism and autobiographical memory type shows that, the type of
memory (specific/general) depended on whether or not the individual is high or
low in dispositional optimism.
Future experimenters could study the parts of the brain that take part in autobiographical memory recall. By looking for differences between individuals who are high or low in dispositional optimism and neurological activity. Also, gender could possible have an affect on the type of memory recalled. It has been reported that women are more likely to experience depression and depression has been correlated with memory recall. Depression also interferes with cognitive functioning, is it possible that an individual who is high in dispositional optimism have the same activation as past studies have found for depressed individuals.
Dispositional Optimism 10
References
Barnhofer,
T., Jong-Meyer, R.de, KleinpaB, A. & Nikesch, S. (2002). Specificity of
autobiographical memories in
depression: An analysis of retrieval processes in a think-aloud task. British
Journal of ClinicalPsychology 41, 411-416.
Boelen, P.A and
Jan Van Den Bout. (2002). Positive
thinking in
bereavement: Is It related to depression, anxiety, or grief Symptomatology. Psychological
Reports, 91, 857-864.
Bueger, J.M.
(2000). Personality 5th Ed.
Fontaine, K. R.
& Jones, L.C. (1997). Self-esteem, Optimism and postpartum depression. Journal
of
Clinical Psychology 53,
59-64.
Marshall,
G.N. & Lang, E.L. (1990). Optimism, Self-Mastery, and Symptoms of
Depression in Women Professionals. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 59,132-139.
Matlin, M. W.
(1999) Psychology 3rd
Sinah,
R., Parsons, O.A. & Glenn, S.W. (1989) Drinking Variables, affective
measures and neuropsyhological Performances: familial alcoholism and gender
Correlates. Alcohol,6, 77-85.
Uekermann,
J., Daum,
Dispositional Optimism 11
Figure Caption
Figure 1. Recall of autobiographical memories depending on the type for individuals who are either high or low in dispositional optimism.
Specific General