Running head: Sound Variation and Anxiety Levels
Make sure you emphasize that if there is a Mozart effect if
depends on place and personality.
Make sure you do appropriate analyses—particularly t test
between high and low math anxious in Mozart and white noise conditions. Big
emphasis is that it is the relaxation interaction quiet classical music has on
high anxious math participants but not low so to get it you have to be task
anxious engaged in a task that you find anxiety-provoking
Challenging the Mozart Effect: The Effect of Sound Variation on Anxiety Levels
Robert D. Bell
St. Bonaventure University
Abstract
The Mozart Effect is an inclusive
term signifying the “ transformational powers of music in health, education,
and well-being” (Campbell, 1999), Rauscher (1993) examined the Mozart effect
and found that listening to music improves college
students’ or ‘s performance on certain types of spatial tasks. However, attempts to replicate the Mozart
effect have failed. Some have concluded that the effect is a myth ( reference) The following experiment was designed to test the
transformational effects of the Mozart effect by including personality types.
Math scores were measured using a 2 ( math anxiety levels ) x 3 (sound variation) on measured A main effect was noted such that High Math Anxious had higher math scores
independent of the typed of sound; however, the transformational effect was
noted in the low anxious participants. It was
predicted that those participants with high mathematical anxiety would score
higher on the math task after being exposed to 10 minutes of both classical music and white noise and but
not to the no noise condition. Sound
variations would have little effect on mat scores.. The results did manifest
the 2-way interaction showing that white
noise was nearly as good a Mozart in enhancing math scores for low math
anxious: the Mozart condition did enhance math scores for high math anxious
mort than did white noise and not noise. The myth lives on but only for some
people in some conditions.. This is good but too long and needs to be cut by 100 wds.
Introduction
A study by
Rauscher and Shaw (1993) indicated that listening to 10 min. of Mozart’s Sonata
for Two pianos in D Major, K448 (Mozart Effect) increased performance on the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale has led to several studies trying to
replicate this effect. Since then the popular press has termed the Mozart
Effect as the ability that music has to enhance performance on certain types of
spatial tasks. The Mozart Effect is a general term signifying the influence of
music in health, education, and well-being. It represents the general use of
music to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; induce relaxation or sleep;
activate the body; and improve memory or awareness. Innovative and experimental
uses of music and sound can improve listening disorders, dyslexia, attention
deficit disorder, autism, and other mental and physical disorders and injuries
(
Many attempts to
replicate the Mozart Effect have been unsuccessful (Bridgett & Cuevas,
2000; Carstens, Huskins, & Hounshell, 1995; Kenealy& Monsef, 1994;
McCutcheon, 2000). Steele, 2003 reported that, “There is still no scientific
reason to base intellectual enhancement programs on the existence of the Mozart
effect”. A 1999 meta-analysis of 16
studies concluded that the overall Mozart Effect size was insignificant
(Chabris, 1999). Although the majority of replicates deny any Mozart Effect,
media, and mainstream cultures have adopted the phenomenon as a scientific
fact. In 1999
The majority of the studies attempting to replicate the Mozart Effect focus on the different complex tasks the participants complete after listening to Mozart, or the musical preference of the participants. These particular studies do not focus on personality factors +such as anxiety, and any of the possible therapeutic abilities music has on such personality factors. However, there has been some recent research indicating that listening to music can decrease feelings of anxiety, and enhance academic performance (MacDonald R. et al., 2003; Lata & Dwivedi, 2001; Wu et al. 2002). Music may not directly enhance cognitive abilities, but by lowering feelings of anxiety assist in complex task performance.
Research has indicated that listening to music can decrease feelings of anxiety (Stanton & Flinders, 1973; MacDonald R. et al., 2003; Lata & Dwivedi, 2001; Wu et al. 2002). A phenomenon that music has some therapeutic properties has led to extensive research of the effects of music on cognition, behavior, and various personality factors. In a study investigating the anxiety and pain reducing effects of music following surgery results indicate that the group who listened to music felt significantly less anxiety than the control group (MacDonald, Mitchell, Dillion, Serpell, Davies, & Ashley, 2003). Other causes of anxiety besides pain from or fear of surgery are things like stress.
High levels of
stress are a leading cause of anxiety.
Some sources of stress for teens might include: school demands and
frustrations, negative thoughts and feelings about themselves, unsafe living
environment, separation or divorce of parents, chronic illness or severe
problems in the family, death of a loved one, having too high expectations,
family financial problems (
One subject that
has been found to cause high levels of anxiety in students is mathematics.
Dreger and Aiken, (1957) suspected that individuals suffer from “number
anxiety”, and correlated this construct with final mathematical grades. Since
that time the term mathematical anxiety has been used to describe this
phenomenon and is defined as “feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere
with the manipulations of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a
wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations” (Richardson & Suinn,
1972). Past literature has indicated that high mathematical anxiety has
a negative effect on math performance and achievement (Hembree, 1990). Also
individuals with high mathematical anxiety take fewer math courses, and
demonstrate lower math achievement and aptitude compared to students with low
math anxiety. Educators are trying to
create programs that can provide intervention strategies to reduce mathematical
anxiety and, therefore foster higher mathematical achievement.
Another
attempt to eliminate classroom anxiety, including mathematical anxiety is the
use of relaxing music, such as Mozart or other relaxation tapes. Stanton and Flinders (1973) studied the
effect of music on test anxiety and revealed that for university students there
was a significant interaction between test level anxiety and the presence of
absence of music. The findings showed that high anxiety students achieved
superior results when exposed to background music. In a study examining the
ability of anti-stress tapes to reduce mental stress 52 Japanese students were
exposed to an experimentally induced stressful situation and completed the
Stress/Arousal Adjective Checklist (SAAC); the results indicated that music
tapes in general could reduce both the stress and arousal factors of the SAAC.
. Does listening to Mozart mention that you predict that if the Mozart effect exits it
depends on situations and personality and not a general effect. decrease
levels of math anxiety, and enhance mathematical performance? The review of the
lite
Mozart Sonata for two pianos in D major is a
soft, soothing classical piece that can calm and reduce the anxiety of
listeners. No noise is the control to make sure that the sound, and not some
other variable is lowering feelings of anxiety amongst the participants. White
noise is just a constant background sound that controls for the fact that the
classical piece and not just any sound can reduce feelings of anxiety.
This study is designed to challenge the
original theory stating the existence of the Mozart Effect, and also the
studies denying any scientific reason behind the effect. Listening to music
does not seem to cause any change drastic changes in cognitive abilities,
however if music influences a neural mechanism to reduce feelings of anxiety
for a brief period this could facilitate learning and performance in academia. Start again: predict
main effect and interaction that is it.
Methods
Participants
Sixty
male and female St. Bonaventure University students were recruited for this
study.
Materials
Conditions
The selected piece of music “Mozart Sonata for two pianos in D major” will
be used to be consistent with other research (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993; Rideout & Taylor, 1997; Steele,
Ball, & Runk, 1997; Cockerton, Moore, & Norman, 1997) examining the effect of music on complex task
performance. No sound and white noise will also be used to provide a control
that the Mozart piece is reducing levels of anxiety not just any sound.
To assess the mathematical anxiety of the participants the Mathematical Anxiety Scale was utilized. The 10-item MAS has been found to have strong internal consistency and stability. Betz (1978) reported a reliability coefficient of .92. Also correlations of about .70 have been reported between the MAS and the full-scale 98-item Mathematical Anxiety Rating Scale (Cooper & Robinson, 1991; Dew, Galassi, & Galassi, 1983; Moore, Alexander, Redfield, & Martray, 1988). Approximately half of the items are worded positively (e.g. "I usually don’t worry about my ability to solve mathematical problems") and half negatively (e.g. "Mathematics makes me feel uncomfortable and nervous"). A 5-point scale is used to score the MAS ranging from ‘strongly agree" to "strongly disagree" and, after reverse scoring where appropriate, total scores could range from 10 (low anxiety) to 50 (high anxiety). (See Appendix A for a copy of the MAS)
The mathematical performance task that is utilized is an algebra test taken from an introductory psychology statistics book. The scores for this test range from 0-100. (See Appendix B for actual test)
Design &Procedure
A 2(anxiety) x 3 (sound variation) factorial design was performed. Participants were placed in either high or low mathematical anxiety groups, and then randomly assigned to either Mozart, white noise, or no sound testing conditions. The experiment consisted of 6 conditions with 10 participants in each condition.
This study was conducted over a two-day span. On the first day the participants signed a consent form and were given the MAS in order to confidentially divide them into high and low mathematical anxiety groups. On the second day the participants are randomly selected to listen to one of three sound variations for ten minutes. Immediately following exposure to the sound variation they participants were asked to complete the math performance task. After the completion of the performance task the participants were given a debriefing of the study and were free to leave.
Results
Table 1. Mean
Math Performance Score
|
|
Mozart |
White Noise |
No Noise |
|
High Math Anxiety |
77.5 |
29.4 |
15.5 |
|
Low Math Anxiety |
86.9 |
78.3 |
61.5 |
Figure 1
Discussion