Running head: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND PERFECTIONISM

Emotional Intelligence and Perfectionism as Predictors of Leadership

Julia K. Aldrich

Saint Bonaventure University

Abstract

Research has shown the importance of emotional intelligence as a characteristic of a good leader (Goleman, 1995). Research has also proven that healthy, adaptive perfectionists are more goal oriented, conscientious, intelligence and adjust well within groups (Rice & Preusser, 2002). These characteristics also describe the ideal leader (Goleman, 1995). This study examined the role of emotional intelligence, and the levels of perfectionism traits and how they influence leadership skills. Seventy-two University students participated in the 2 X 3 (emotional intelligence x perfectionism) within subject study. This study predicted that there would be a main effect and a direct interaction between emotional intelligence and the levels of perfectionism in leadership situations. Results found that high emotional intelligent were better leaders than low emotional leaders; adaptive perfectionist were better leader than low and maladaptive perfectionist. An interaction was found showing that leadership varied with the level the level of perfectionism and emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence and Perfectionism as Predictors of Leadership

Gardner’s (1993) theory of multiple intelligences was one of the first theories that emphasized the importance of social interaction and individual’s emotions. He included the theory of self-awareness as a form used to express ones own emotions and thoughts. Mayer and Salovey (1997) developed a more complete theory of emotional intelligence (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 2002). Their theory’s focal point is that people have varied abilities to perceive and express emotions, express and comprehend a general understanding of emotions, as well the ability to preserve and manage emotions to better oneself in both aspects of growth and social development (Salovey et al., 2002).

“Emotional intelligence includes the ability to perceive, appraise and express one’s emotions fully and completely with specific details; the ability to receive the feelings that are expressed through one’s cognitive abilities; the ability to comprehend affect-laden information used in emotional knowledge; and the ability to control emotions”(Salovey et al, 2002).

All of these characteristics are used to better one’s own intellectual growth as well as ones own well being. Appendix 1 expresses the emotional intelligence framework of Mayer and Salovey (1997). With the growing research done on emotional intelligence, many theories exist. One example presented by Saarni’s (1999) theory of emotional competence, added a twist to emotional intelligence by including social contexts of emotional self-efficacy (Schutte et al,. 2001).

Previous studies have investigated the correlation between emotional intelligence and social skills (Schutte et al., 2001). Anderson (1968) found that people with good social skills receive a positive treatment or response from others. Schutte et al., (2001) found that those that had a higher score in emotional intelligence were associated with a significantly higher level of social skills. In this study, there were no findings of a gender difference between emotional intelligence scores or the social-skill scores (Schutte et al., 2001).

Previous research has also examined the correlation between emotional intelligence and cooperation (Schutte et al., 2001). Cooperation is an essential attribute for maintaining a positive relationship with others (Austin & Worchel, 1979). The study by Schutte et al. (2001) first ranked participants on the emotional intelligence scale. The results of this study showed that there was a significant positive correlation between high scores for emotional intelligence and cooperative responses (Schutte et al., 2001).

Schutte et al. (2001) also conducted research on emotional intelligence and relations with others. The results showed that participants with higher emotional intelligence scores expressed a positive correlation to scores on the relationship inventory.

Goleman’s (1995) research focuses on the importance of emotional intelligence in the corporate world and leadership skills. In his research he stated that “IQ and technical skills are important, but emotional intelligence is the sin qua non of leadership” (Goleman, 1995). High emotional intelligence levels aid in leadership skills, which are looked at positively. Many corporations and large companies administer the Emotional Intelligence survey, to determine promotions and even job positions. Emotional intelligence is proven to be twice as important as other characteristics for jobs at all levels (Goleman, 1995). Goleman explains the different personal characteristics needed to be a positive leader in the work force, however in each job situation, emotional intelligence is a strong characteristic needed which expresses a stronger bond when used in working with group projects (Goleman, 1995).

Emotional intelligence skills are prominent in school programs, focusing on teaching students social and emotional learning and training techniques (Lopes, Salovey & Straus, 2002). A study by Rublin (1999) examined school children that were tested and ranked on the MEIS (Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Test; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey 1998). The students who received high scores on emotional intelligence were rated by peers as less aggressive and teachers rated them as more “prosocial”, when compared to the students who scored low on the emotional intelligence test (Lopes et al., 2002).

The Webster Dictionary (1995) defines perfectionism as “ a predilection for setting extremely high standards and being displeased with anything less” (p.816). The theory of perfectionism was first defined by Adler (1956). Adler stated that striving for perfectionism is normal and innate. Those who express healthy perfectionism reach for goals that are obtainable; those who express maladaptive perfectionism have fear of criticism, are obsessive over order, and seek total admiration (Rice & Presusser, 2002). Maladaptive Perfectionism, has been associated with various mental disorders such as: obsessive-compulsive disorder (e.g. Mcfall & Wollersheim, 1979), eating disorders (e.g., Garner, Garfinkel & Bemis, 1982), and depression (Burns, 1980) as cited in (Juster et al,. 1996).

A study by Frost and Marten (1990), examined how perfectionistic college students vs. non-perfectionist college students expressed a higher level of negative affect while participating in a graded written task, “a situation analogous to social encounters for social phobic patients”(Juster et al., 1996). Research done by Gowan and Bruch (1971) found that perfectionism is a trait associated with students who are labeled “gifted” (Hillyer, 1988). Gowan and Bruch (1971) have also stated that perfectionistic tendencies limit activities that might better oneself in the future (Hillyer, 1988). Perfectionist tendencies lead one to feel unsure of competing with others for fear they will not be successful. There is a tendency for gifted students to set goals that are too high. The participant’s critical thinking skills can then be so overpowering it creates problems (Hillyer, 1988). Perfectionism has been indirectly connected to a gap between social skills and intellectual abilities (Hillyer, 1988).

Based on previous research on the importance of emotional intelligence and perfectionism this experiment was designed to investigate the importance of these traits with leadership scores. I predicted that participants with high emotional intelligence and adaptive perfectionistic traits would score the highest on the leadership questionnaire. Participants with low emotional intelligence and maladaptive perfectionistic traits would score the lowest on the leadership questionnaire. Participants in the other four conditions would express scores in between the conditions of high emotional intelligence, adaptive perfectionism, and low emotional intelligence, maladaptive perfectionism. It is predicted that there will be a main effect and a direct interaction between all conditions of emotional intelligence and the all levels of perfectionism in leadership situations. A significant interaction and main effect would be found for both emotional intelligence and perfectionism in a leadership situation. This demonstrates that participants score on leadership is dependent on the level of emotional intelligence and the classification of perfectionism.

Methods

Participants

This study recruited 72 male and female undergraduate students. The participants were divided into four categories, high (emotional intelligence) and high (perfectionism); high (emotional intelligence) and low (perfectionism); low (emotional intelligence) and high (perfectionism); low (emotional intelligence) and low (perfectionism). They will receive extra-credit in a psychology course for their participation.

Material

To assess the emotional intelligence level, the participants completed the MSCEIT (Mater, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test; Mayer, Salovery, & Caruso, 2001). The MSCEIT is a revision of the MEIS (Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Test; Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey, 1998). The MSCEIT has been used in few studies, because it is a new test. The MSCIET uses eight tasks to assess the four branches called: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions (Lopes, et. al., 2002). The tasks include e.g., interpretations of facial expressions during emotional states, identifying specific emotional-feelings during different activities and situations, and evaluating the rate of responses to interpersonal problems (Lopes et. al. 2002). The scoring of the MSCIET is calculated from a large sample of individuals encompassing many different countries and is then reviewed by a panel of 21 emotion researchers (Lopes et. al. 2002).

To measure participant’s levels of perfectionism, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (MPS) was administered. The MPS is a 35-item scale that uses self-reporting to measure the distinctiveness of perfectionism. According to Frost et al (1990) the subscales are: “(1) concern over mistakes (CM); (2) doubts about actions (DA); (3) personal standards (PS); (4) parental expectations (PE); (5) parental criticism (PC); and (6) Organization (OR)” (Juster et al. 1996).

The CM subscale is a measurement of critical self-evaluation. This subscale is used to determine key concepts of pathological perfectionism according to Frost et al. (1990) (Juster et. al 1996). The subscale of DA measures for critical self-evaluation. This subscale includes characteristics and the quality of choosing the right course of action when given a scenario. According to Frost et. al., (1990), subscales of CM and DA have been related to self-critical depression, compulsivity, procrastination, and psychopathology (Juster et. al., 1996). Subscale of PS determines signs viewed by perfectionism and containing both positive and negative aspects. A sample question from the subscale of PE would be “My parents wanted me to be the best at everything”. The OR subscale, contain characteristics of orderliness and precision in every day tasks (Juster et. al., 1996).

The validity of the MPS reports has been good to excellent for each subscales reported. Frost et al., (1990) has reported that the total perfectionism score, which is the total of all, subscales with an exception of OR, has been shown to be significantly correlated with other measurement techniques on perfectionism (Juster et al., 1996).

Leadership is determined by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The questionnaire is a nine-factor model, that was proposed by Bass and Avolio (Antonakis, Avolio, Sivasubramaniam, 2003). Research has determined that it is stable, and a good determinate of leadership characteristics (Antonakis, et. al., 2003).

Design and Procedure

A 2 (emotional intelligence) x 3 (perfectionism) factorial design was analyzed. Participants were divided into a high or a low level of emotional intelligence and perfectionism score a non-perfectionist, an adaptive, or a maladaptive. This experiment consisted of six conditions, with 12 participants in each condition.

This study was conducted with virtual data. The design plan was conducted over one day. Participants first, signed a consent form, and were then given either the emotional intelligence questionnaire, or the perfectionism survey. They were classified as having high or low emotional intelligence based on a median split of scores. They were classified as having non-, adaptive or maladaptive perfectionistic traits according to Following the survey and questionnaire, a leadership questionnaire was given to each participant. Following the questionnaire, the participants were debriefed.

Results

There are two independent variables for the study. The first one is emotional intelligence (high or low) and this is a within subject variable. The second independent variable is the type of perfectionistic traits (non-, adaptive, or maladaptive) and is a within subjects variable. The dependent variable is the score on the leadership questionnaire. A 2 x 3 within subjects ANOVA was used to assess the results.

There was a significant main effect of emotional intelligence F (1, 66) = 56.598, p = 0.0 which means that those that scored high in emotional intelligence scored high in leadership. There was a significant main effect of perfectionism F (2, 66) = 478.614, p = 0.0, which means that those are classified as adaptive perfectionists scored high in leadership compared to maladaptive and low perfectionist.. There was also a significant interaction between emotional intelligence and perfectionism F (2, 66) = 14.621, p = 0.0. This demonstrates that participants score on leadership is dependent on the level of emotional intelligence and the classification of perfectionism. Those participants that expressed high emotional intelligence and an adaptive perfectionism level had a leadership score that was significantly higher than those scores in the other five conditions. The data concludes that emotional intelligence expresses a higher main effect than perfectionism. Those that scored the highest on the leadership questionnaire express high emotional intelligence and are labeled adaptive perfectionists. See Table 1 for the complete mean scores for emotional intelligence (high and low) and perfectionism (non, adaptive, and maladaptive). See Table 2 for the complete ANOVA.

Discussion

The hypothesis that an individual who has high emotional intelligence and adaptive perfectionism would have a higher score on the leadership inventory was supported by the results. There is a significant interaction between emotional intelligence and levels of perfectionism in all conditions.

A main effect was found for all levels of perfectionism, non-perfectionistic, adaptive, and maladaptive traits. There was also a main effect for emotional intelligence, both high and low. The results from this study show the importance of the specific level of perfectionism.

Future studies could be conducted to compare the importance of other characteristics of Goleman’s theory of leadership, such as intellectual intelligence. A comparison of different intellectual variables could be tested to determine what characteristics influence negative roles in leadership assessments. Research could also be conducted to determine what specific job areas emotional intelligence has as an influence on job placement, or employment. This could then be used to evaluate emotional intelligence in specific job fields, and determine what fields benefit from high emotional intelligence.

Research could also move in the direction of, and the importance of adaptive perfectionism. One could study the difference between all three levels within a job environment, as well as the use in specific leadership situations. Future research could also be used to distinguish the traits of perfectionism within genders in leadership situations.

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Table 1

Mean Leadership Scores for Emotional Intelligence and Perfectionism

Perfectionism

Non- Adaptive Maladaptive

Emotional Intelligence

High EQ 21.167 88.167 8.5

Low EQ 11.5 59.25 3.67

Table 2

ANOVA Data

Source df F-ratio p

EQ 1 56.598 0.0

Perfectionism 2 478.614 0.0

EQ*Perfectionism 2 14.621 0.0

Figure Caption

Figure 1. Leadership as a function of perfectionism and emotional intelligence.

Appendix: A1

The Emotional Intelligence Framework

Perception, appraisal, and expression of emotion

Ability to identify emotion in one’s physical and psychological states.
Ability to identify emotion in other people and objects.
Ability to express emotions accurately, and to express needs related to those feelings.

Emotional facilitation of thinking

Ability to redirect and prioritize one’s thinking based on the feelings associated with objects, events, and other people.
Ability to generate or emulate vivid emotions to facilitate judgments and memories concerning feelings.
Ability to capitalize on mood swings to take multiple points of view; ability to integrate these mood-induced perspectives.
Ability to use emotional states to facilitate problem solving and creativity.

Understanding and analyzing emotional information; employing emotional knowledge

Ability to understand how different emotions are related.
Ability to perceive the causes and consequences of feelings.
Ability to interpret complex feelings, such as emotional blends and contradictory feeling states.
Ability to understand and predict likely transitions between emotions.

Regulation of emotion

Ability to be open to feelings, both those that are pleasant and those that are unpleasant.
Ability to monitor and reflect on emotions.
Ability to engage, prolong, or detach from an emotional state, depending upon its judged informativeness or utility.
Ability to manage emotion in oneself and others.