Rape Perceptions 1

Running Head: RAPE PERCETIONS: THE EFFECTS OF VICTIM

Rape Perceptions: The Effects of Victim and Participant

Gender and Alcohol Consumption

Laura Sortore

St. Bonaventure University

Rape Perceptions 2

Abstract

The effects of gender of both the participant and the victim, and alcohol consumption on perceptions of rape were investigated in this study. Each participant read a date rape vignette. The participant’s score on five questions concerning the vignette determined their perception of rape. Participants rated the five questions on a seven point Likert-type scale with 1(strongly agree) and 7 (strongly disagree). The results indicated that there was an effect of gender of the participant and gender of the victim. Males were less likely to see any of the situations as rape than females. Also, females were slightly less likely to see the situation as rape if the victim was male. There were no effects of beverage of the victim for any of the conditions and there were no interactions.

Rape Perceptions 3

Rape Perception: The Effects of Victim and Participant

Gender and Alcohol Consumption

Though most people seem to know what rape is, many have a hard time deciding whether rape actually occurred when presented with a hypothetical situation. A counselor stated males are at a disadvantage when claiming to be the victim of rape merely because people think males have a constant desire to have sex, making them unable to be a victim of rape. When one male in an all-male group counseling session stated that he had been raped the overwhelming response from the other males was: “Yeah right! Like you didn’t want it! Come on, no guy doesn’t want to have sex!” The counselor reported that aside from the fact that the victim was male, another variable in the story that colored the group’s perceptions of the event was alcohol. She stated that males in the group held the belief that when alcohol was involved there was sexual intent. Due to the responses of the males in the all male counseling group to a male victim in an alcohol related date rape situation I decided to study the effects of participant gender, victim gender, and alcohol in perceptions of rape.

One study (George, Gournic, and McAfee, 1988) on alcohol reported findings that support the idea that alcohol is perceived as a sexual precursor. Geioge, Gournic, and McAfee varied the beverage (cola, beer, wine, or whiskey) of a female in a scenario and found that when she consumed any type of alcohol she was perceived as more sexually aggressive, more available, and more likely to engage in coitus. When Abbey and Harnish (1995) varied the alcohol consumption of a male and a female in a scenario they

Rape Perceptions 4

found that both were viewed as more sexual and their drinking behavior was seen as most acceptable when they were drinking either beer or mixed drinks.

Corcoran and Thomas (1991) found that when the beverage of both the male and the female was varied the male was perceived as more likely to initiate sexual intercourse than the female. Additionally, when both the male and the female had consumed alcohol they were seen as more likely to initiate sexual activity. Based on these findings Abbey and Harnish speculated that the shared alcohol consumption of the male and the female “may be misperceived as a sign of sexual intent” (p. 299).

Osman and Davis (1999) agreed that being under the influence of alcohol might lead to behaviors that cue sexual willingness. Harrington and Leitenberg (1994) reported that drunken females who were victims of sexual aggression reported higher levels of sexual activity and lower levels of physical resistance just before the assault compared to victims who were not drunk. Later protest and a lack of physical resistance during sexual interactions have been found to indicate sexual willingness (Osman & Davis, 1999; Shotland & Goldstein, 1983). According to the aforementioned findings, much can be said about the messages social alcohol consumption conveys. Though none of these studies involved rape they carried important implications about the effects of alcohol on perceptions of sexual availability, which when misperceived could lead to rape.

Norris and Cubbins (1992) conducted a study involving both alcohol and rape. They found that when participants were presented with a rape scenario they were less sure that rape actually occurred if the perpetrator had been drinking. Moreover, Norris and Cubbins found that participants viewed the victim as more responsive to the

Rape Perceptions 5

perpetrator and they judged the perpetrator as more likeable and more sexual when he was drinking. Participants also attributed more of the blame to the consumption of alcohol rather than to the offender when he was intoxicated during the rape. In situations in which the male and female were portrayed as equally intoxicated the victim was assigned more blame and responsibility for the rape, but if the female had more to drink the male was assigned more blame (Stormo, Lang, and Stritzke, 1997). These findings suggest that in situations involving rape and alcohol the scapegoat often becomes alcohol.

Due to a number of factors, alcohol being one of them, victim blame differs drastically depending on the situation. Alcohol consumption is traditionally seen as a masculine behavior, which may contribute to the negative perception of females in rape situations involving alcohol (Landrine, Bardwell, & Dean, 1988). Shotland and Goodstein (1983) presented males and females with a heterosexual date rape situation. Their unique findings indicated that females were more likely to blame the victim than males. Shotland and Goodstein suggested that females might have seen the situation as avoidable, leading them to blame the victim. Contradictory findings show that men are more likely to assume the woman did something to provoke the attack (ex. Foley, Evanic, Karnik, King, & Parks, 1995). Moreover, men often have more limited definitions of rape, which contributes to their transference of blame onto the female (ex. Kleinke & Meyer, 1990).

Though most studies look at female victimization, some research indicates that male victims are also blamed for their own victimization (Whatley & Riggio, 1993). Men are less likely to see the incident as rape when the victim is a heterosexual male.

Rape Perceptions 6

The lack of empathy for male rape victims may occur for a few reasons: 1) some believe that it is impossible to rape a male because the male penetrates the female during sexual intercourse, 2) males are seen as hypersexual beings incapable of controlling their natural urges, and 3) men carry the physical advantage of size and force over females, which should allow them to physically prevent it (Cowan & Quinton, 1997).

Despite the low number of reported male rape cases a significant number of males have reported being pressured or forced to have sex by both males and females (ex. Struckman-Johnson, 1988). The underreporting could be due to the fact that, as previously mentioned, males are seldom sympathized as a victim of a sexual assault. In a sexual assault where the male was the victim and the female was the perpetrator the male victim was rated as more likely to have encouraged the assault, experienced more pleasure, and experienced “less trauma” than any other victim-assailant combinations (Smith, Pine, & Hawley, 1988). Startlingly, 47% of male participants rated the assault as pleasurable for the victim. This shows that males are even more likely to perpetuate sexually discriminating stereotypes against their own sex than females.

After reviewing the literature, this experiment was designed to test the effects of participant gender, victim gender, and alcohol consumptions on perceptions of rape. The hypotheses are as follows: 1) Males are less likely than females to consider the male a victim of rape, 2) Males are more likely to see the male as a victim of rape if he had alcohol to drink, 3) Males are more likely to see the female as a victim if she has had alcohol to drink, and 4) Females are less likely to see the females as victims if they had alcohol to drink.

Rape Perceptions 7

Methods

Subjects

One hundred twenty undergraduate students participated in the study. Sixty were female, and sixty were male. The investigator recruited each participant.

Instruments

Each participant was given a vignette explaining a heterosexual date rape situation. The victim’s sex was varied (male or female), and the beverage of the victim was varied (soda or vodka-tonic). The vignette was adapted from previous research (Shotland &Goodstein, 1983; George, Gournic, & McAfee, 1988). Once the participants read their vignette they were given Osman and Davis’s (1999) five-item questionnaire, which asked the participant to rate each of the five items on a seven point Likert-type scale with 1(strongly agree) and 7(strongly disagree). The statements that were used to measure the dependent variable (perception of rape) were as follows: “Lisa wanted to have intercourse with Mark,” “Lisa was willing to have intercourse with Mark,” “Lisa enjoyed having intercourse with Mark,” “Lisa’s rights were not violated by Mark,” and “Lisa was not raped by Mark.” In vignettes where Mark was the victim the names in the questionnaires were switched accordingly.

Procedure

Participants were tested individually. Once they singed the consent form they were given a vignette to read. Subjects received as much time as they needed to read the vignette. Each vignette was exactly the same except for variations in gender of the victim

Rape Perceptions 8

and beverage of the victim. The vignettes described a date in which Mark picked up Lisa and they went out for dinner. The beverage of both the victim and the assailant was stated three times; when they ordered the drinks, when the waitress brought the drinks, and when they ordered a second drink. The assailant always drank beer. Once the participant had read their vignette they were given the questionnaire. Aside from the items being used to measure the dependent variable, each person was also asked the date, their gender, and their religion. After completing the questionnaire, participants were issued written debriefing statements and excused.

Results

An ANOVA was used to analyze the data for the 2x2x2 (participant gender x victim gender x victim beverage) design (See Table 1). The ranges of the scores for the dependant variable (perception of rape) were between 1 (no perception of rape) and 35 (significant perception of rape). There was no significant three way interaction, F (1, 112) = 0.218, p > .05. Results showed that there was a considerable effect of participant gender, F (1, 112) = 19.86, p < .001. There was also a significant effect of victim gender, F (1, 112) = 10.96, p < .001. The victim’s beverage, however, did not have a significant effect on perceptions of rape, F (1, 112) = .353, p > .05. Moreover, although the interaction between participant gender and victim gender approached significance, F (1, 112) = 3.649, p < .059, there were no other potential interactions (See Figures 1 & 2). The gender of the participant and the gender of the victim had an effect on the perception of rape but the effects of the gender of the participant were not dependant on the gender of the victim and visa versa.

Rape Perceptions 9

Discussion

Contradictory to the findings of Norris and Cubbins (1992), alcohol had no effect on the participants’ perceptions of rape. Due to the lack of effects of alcohol on perceptions of rape the second, third, and fourth hypothesis were all countered. Yet, the hypotheses stating that male participants were less likely to see other males as the victim than female participants was supported. Females were more likely to see rape in any of the four situations than males, but they were most likely to see rape if the victim was a female.

Although this study lacked support for previous research concerning the effects of alcohol on people’s perceptions of others, the support for gender effects on perceptions carry important implications for future research. This study does support the gender differences in perceptions of male and female rape victims. Future studies may want to explore the reasons for these gender differences. For example, Whatley and Riggio (1993) found that men were more likely to attribute more responsibility to the victim, be negatively influenced by the manipulation of variables, and perceive the victim as experiencing more pleasure from the assault. The reason why men are more likely to display these views remains unclear.

Even though the consumption of alcohol in this study did not effect the perception of rape there are many other variables that need to be examined at some point. One reason that the consumption of alcohol may not have elicited the intended response was because both the victim and the assailant in the story only had three drinks. This may not

Rape Perceptions 10

have made them appear intoxicated enough to be considered impaired. Two more variables that may have indirectly affected the outcome were force and resistance.

Shotland and Goodstein (1983) examined the effects of alcohol consumption, force, and resistance in a date rape scenario. They found that the woman was viewed as more sexual after she had been drinking. The woman was also viewed as desiring the encounter when the perpetrator used low force and she protested later rather than earlier during the foreplay. The man was viewed as more violent, and the incident was more likely to be viewed as rape if he used high force instead of low or moderate and if the woman protested early instead of late. These findings, and many others, demonstrate the need for further research concerning sexual perceptions.

Rape Perceptions 11

References

Abbey, A., & Harnish, R. J. (1995). Perception of sexual intent: the role of gender,

alcohol consumption, and rape supportive attitudes. Sex Roles, 32, 297-313.

Corcoran, K. L. & Thomas, L. R. (1991). The influence of observed alcohol consumption

on perceptions of initiation of sexual activity in a college dating situation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 500-507.

Cowan, G., & Quinton, W. J. (1997). Cognitive style and attitudinal correlates of the

perceived causes of rape scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 227-245.

Foley, L. A., Evancic, C., Karnik, K., King, J., & Parks, A. (1995). Date rape: effects of

race of the assailant and victim and gender of the subjects on perceptions. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 6-18.

George, W. H., Gournic, S. J., & McAfee, M. P. (1988). Perceptions of postdrinking

female sexuality: effects of gender, beverage choice, and drink payment. Journal

of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1295-1317.

Harrington, N. T., & Leitenberg, H. (1994). Relationship between alcohol consumption

an victim behaviors immediately preceding sexual aggression by an acquaintance. Violence and Victims, 9, 315-324.

Kleinke, C. L., & Meyer, C. (1990). Evaluation of a rape victim by men and women with

high and low belief in a just world. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 343-353.

Landrine, H., Bardwell, S., & Dean, T. (1988). Gender expectations for alcohol use: a

study of the significance of the masculine role. Sex Roles, 19, 703-712.

Rape Perceptions 12

Norris, J., & Cubbins, L. A. (1992). Dating, drinking and rape: effects of victim’s and

assailant’s alcohol consumption on judgments of their behavior and traits. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 179-191.

Osman, S. L., & Davis, C. M. (1999). Predicting perceptions of date rape based on

individual beliefs and female alcohol consumption. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 701-709.

Shotland, R. L., & Goodstein, L. (1983). Just because she doesn’t want to doesn’t mean

it’s rape: an experimentally based causal model of the perception of rape in a dating situation. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 220-232.

Smith, R. E., Pine, C. J., & Hawley, M. E. (1988). Social cognitions about adult male

victims of female sexual assault. The Journal of Sex Research, 24, 101-112.

Stormo, K. J., Lang, A. R., & Stritzke, W. G. K. (1997). Attributions about acquaintance

rape: the role of alcohol and individual differences. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 279-305.

Struckman-Johnson, C. (1988). Forced sex on dates: it happens to men, too. The Journal

of Sex Research, 24, 234-241.

Whatley, M. A., & Riggio, R. E. (1993). Gender differences in attributions of blame for

male rape victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 502-511.

Rape Perceptions 13

Table 1

Analysis of Variance

Source Degrees of Freedom F-Ratio P

Beverage 1 0.353 .554

Victim Gender 1 10.963 .001

Participant Gender 1 19.866 .000

Beverage*VictGen 1 2.083 .152

Beverage*PartGen 1 0.002 .966

VicGen*PartGen 1 3.649 .059

Bev*VicGen*PartGen 1 0.218 .641

Error 112

Figure 1

Figure 2