12/00….312@222 Learning Applications—see class notes on flashbulb memory and context-dependent memory

LTM

LTM: has two important features: (1) lasting nature of the stored information, and (2) the great size of the repository.

How does information enter LTM? Elaborative Rehearsal: Maintenance rehearsal seems to be more STM mediated . Elaboration example: b) elaborative rehearsal: formation of associations of new information with old--Brandy Nettles

Brandy glass floating in the pool about to be scooped by a net. Requires significant cognitive effort by concentrating on new information and relating it to old. Anything that interferes with elaborative rehearsals should interfere with storage: alcohol, moods like depression.

Level of processing : (Craik, 1985). Shallow which involves merely repeating a word or do two words or letters look alike. A more deeper level of processing might involve a more complex code such as do two words rhyme or you could take it

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to an even deeper level by asking what it means or using it in a sentence. This is Deep processing.

JP efficacy: Shallow: efficacy sounds like pesky, which is shallow but if I were to define the word and ask him to use " My self-efficacy level increase the more I learn about computers. "

As you can see, shallow processing is most like maintenance rehearsal and STM whereas deep is more like elaborative and facilitate LTM.The deeper the level of processing the more accurate the recall. Any significance for exams.

Types of coding

LTM: TWO Different systems: (says Endel Tulving/1972)Processing systems

Declarative: All memory brought into consciousness either by verbal proposition or visual image. These include:

1) Episodic Memory: Specific events in your life much like autobiographical which would include like what you had at Hickey for lunch yesterday,

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2) last night's ball scores, who you went to your high school prom with.

2) Semantic Memory: General knowledge. Formula for calculating the area of a circle

Capital of Nebraska

Life time batting average of Ernie Banks

Procedural Processing which retain information which is typically not conscious--the effects of practice and conditioning. Examples: learning how to learn to ride a bike, walking, speaking, fear of snakes, playing the piano

Usually processed at cerebellum level.

3) Procedural memory: Formation and retention of habits. Pavlovian and Instrumental conditioning. Serving a tennis ball, cross country skiing.

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Data summary: Information retrieved from episodic memory is more effortlessly coded and recalled with ease, that is not the case for semantic

memory. However, episodic memory is more

negatively affected by amnesia than semantic. Some researchers, so what else is new, suggest that there is only one type of LTM store (Craik, 1985).

Retrieval

We know that STM is limited by capacity and is quickly lost if not continually rehearsed. LTM does not have these problems. Is it PERFECT.? NO. We have had experiences where we can not remember a piece of information no matter how hard we try. It is in there but. TOT Tip of the tongue phenomenon. Storage play an important role in your ability to retrieve. The fact is illustrated by Bower: Subjects asked to memorize

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words falling into four distinct categories: minerals, animals, etc.

For one group the words were organized appropriately but for others the words were arranged randomly, mammal with birds etc. Recall was significantly superior for organized-group than random indicating that one key to effective retrieval is organization.

Other retrieval cues:

Stimuli that help us remember.

1) Context and state memory. Study for an exam in the same place you take it and if you drink coffee while studying drink it when you take the test.

2) Imagery and Mnemonic devices a) method of loci, (using location as memory) Glenn Groom sits on the far left side. b) peg-word learn numerical rhyme one is a gun, two is a shoe, tree with green. learning the alphabet

3) Eidetic memory or photographic: Absolute systematic decline across age. Seems to be a youth specific phenomenon.

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Forgetting

Eyewitness testimony

Is it according to a trace decay hypothesis { Jerkins and Dallenbach, 1924) time) or is it due to Interference. (Tulving) A great deal of evidence supports interference as reason for forgetting.

Position 1 Decay or fades notion.

Position 2 Interference

Interference between different of information stored. Retroacative interference:

Information currently being learned interferes with information stored Example: learning the rules of a new board game facilitate forgetting the rules of the old game

Proactive Interference: Previously learned information interferes with new information or information you are trying to acquire. Information on how to operate an old VCR interferes with learning the how to operate a new VCR. Going from Beta to VHS.