Running head: MUSCLE DYSMORPHIA WITHIN GENDER AND SPORT

Muscle Dysmorphia: Profiling Eating Pathologies in Potentially Symptomatic University Men and Women Within the Athletic Arena

Nicholas Kicior

St. Bonaventure University

Abstract

This investigation aimed to explore eating patterns within both males and females inside the intensely vulnerable arena of athletics. Muscle Dysmorphia, a thinly researched somatoform disorder was included in the eating disorder continuum along with the more common eating dysfunctions of anorexia and bulimia. Investigating within male and female undergraduate rugby and cross-country athletes at St. Bonaventure and Niagara University using a questionnaire, eating behaviors were examined. It was hypothesized that rugby males would exhibit the most MD symptoms, while maintaining a smaller gap than females between sport. Results did not support the hypotheses, but did, in fact, support previous research on the enormous vulnerability of females to outside pressure, destructive weight-loss measures, and self-image distortions.

Muscle Dysmorphia: Profiling an Eating Pathology in Potentially Symptomatic University Men and Women Within the Athletic Arena

Eating pathologies and treatments have been at the core of a number of past investigations. With each new study, researchers and clinicians gain a deeper insight into the unpredictable realm of irregular eating patterns. Research regarding dysfunctional eating, however, has been overwhelmingly focused on the female population (Sands, 2003). This particular focus seems to be validated since previous research supports the notion that females and homosexual males are the two biggest populations that house anorexia and bulimia, two of the most severely dangerous eating disorders. Thus, having either anorexia or bulimia is seen as a feminine disorder, therefore, heterosexual males seem to be left out of the researched population for these types of eating irregularities. In addition, heterosexual males may even feel embarrassed to admit to having such a struggle with these types of problems and, in turn, tend to seek help less than women (Andersen, 1990). In addition, Andersen (1999) explained this reluctant male attitude by citing that males face the stigma of having gender-inconsistent disorder, seeing as how having an eating disorder is socially viewed as a female problem. Acknowledging that the overly extensive research on females could be misleading to clinicians and counselors, Petrie and Rogers (2001) wrote a compilation article, hoping to extend the discussion of eating disorders to include men and another critical group: athletes. It was only until recently that research investigated one specific type of somatoform disorder, known as Muscle Dysmorphia (MD), which put heterosexual males underneath the microscope.

Although considered a somatoform disorder and not an eating pathology, Muscle Dysmorphia (MD) is known as bigorexia or “reverse anorexia” and is a specific form of a more general disorder known as body dysmorphic disorder, in which an individual exhibits a number of dysfunctional behaviors. Muscularly dysmorphic individuals constantly obsess over their perceived small and underdeveloped bodies. They compulsively exercise in order to increase muscle mass and work relentlessly to attain their own ideal body image. In addition, those who have this disorder may avoid situations in which they may need to expose their body and will consequently wear baggy clothes in order to cover their allegedly puny body. The neurotic and lengthy workouts may cause these individuals to miss important events in their lives and jeopardize important relationships, which could ultimately isolate them from their friends, family, and society. Because these individuals are working to achieve an impossible ideal, they are forced to fight biology and push their bodies to the maximum. In order to aide in building muscle, muscularly dysmorphic individuals may begin to use anabolic steroids or engage in certain diets that include inordinate amounts of calories, creatine, or protein, which could potentially have severe physiological affects, which include but are not limited to heart disease, cardiac arrest, kidney failure, severe reproductive repercussions, osteoporosis, and dehydration. Although found in both males and females, Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, and Phillips (1997), indicated that MD occurs more commonly in males than females, but proves to be a debilitating disorder for both, which may be worthy of including it in the eating disorder continuum.

There are many bio-psycho-social factors that may contribute to the presence of MD. Changes in the human brain at the time of puberty, caused by the release of hormones, raise key developmental questions in relation to critical periods when certain body image attitudes may be formed. In addition, because MD is a derivative of body dysmorphic disorder, MD can be considered as an obsessive-compulsive disorder, which can be linked to certain psychopathologies. Certain societal and cultural trends may also influence the development of MD. For example, research has shown the recent impact of the media on males and their body perception (Fawkner & McMurray, 2002; Leit, Gray, Pope, 2002). Like many other eating disorders, low self-esteem, feelings of inadequacy, lack of control in life, and severe depression, anxiety, anger, or loneliness may also contribute to the development of MD (NEDA, 2003).

Also linked to body image perceptions is self-esteem. When an individual has low self-esteem, they become increasingly vulnerable to factors that may elicit irregular eating patterns, whether it anorexia, bulimia, or MD. Those with MD have a poorer body image and are less happy with their bodies, which is similar to those who have anorexia or bulimia (Choi, Pope, Olivardia, 2002). The compulsive drive for muscularity has been shown to be negatively correlated with self-esteem. In addition, Olivardia, Pope, and Hudson (2000) that there were measures of body dissatisfaction on the EDI were similar for both college males with eating disorders and male weightlifters with MD.

In an investigation conducted by McCreary and Sasse (2002), it was shown that young women were more likely to be dieting to lose weight, while young men were more likely to be dieting to gain weight and muscle mass. Researchers have shown that between 28% and 68% of normal weight boys are trying to, or want to, gain weight, even though there is no physical or health-related reason (Cohn et al., 1987). In addition, Kurth et al., has conducted a survey on a college campus and showed that 91% of the women surveyed had attempted to control their weight through dieting, with 22% dieting “often” or “always.” Previous research supports the idea that the majority of women desire to be thinner and have.

Eating disorders have also been a hot topic within athletics. Certain sports, such as football or rugby, necessitate that players be muscular in order to have optimal performance. Studies have demonstrated that certain athletic activities appear to put males and females at risk for developing eating pathologies in that they necessitate specific body weights and types in order to perform well (Andersen, Bartlett, Morgan & Rowena, 1995). For example, wrestling is divided into weight classes, losing weight in cross-country adds time onto the distance, less weight on rowers in crew decreases weight on the boat, making it easier for competitors to move faster, and bigger linebackers make for difficult passage for players of the other team. When simply analyzed, it is easy to see why there is so much concern over athletes developing disordered eating patterns. When players excessively work out, they are simply seen as having a healthy drive to do well as an athlete (Chung, 2001). Coaches continually push athletes to conform to a specific body type in order for them to perform well. This athletic environment places the athlete’s worth on their performance and not on the person, which may pressure the individual to exercise excessively and deny pain in order to achieve and maintain this ideal. What is seen as a “good” athlete within the sport may very well be symptoms of an eating disorder. Therefore, it may be possible that certain attitudes about body image may be particular to each sport. In research conducted by McKay Parks and Read (1997) comparing football players to cross-country runners, it was shown that 80% of football players wanted to increase their body weight. They, however, reported more positive responses and attitudes toward eating, weight control, and body satisfaction. Cross-country runners reported lower Body Esteem scores and expressed a desire to lose weight and be thinner. This may show that those trying to get bigger do not necessarily see themselves as having a problem since that type of behavior is not typically viewed as an issue. Questions regarding excessive workouts, body perception, and supplements are not typically asked of these types of individuals. Hausenblas and Carron (1999) found that when an individual enters the athletic arena, more males and females seem to exhibit characteristics of eating disorders than those of non-athletes, which seemingly shows that weight-dependent sports seem to magnify the eating disorder issue.

It is important to be able to distinguish between working toward a goal within a sport by using weights to increase performance and actually having MD or exhibiting its symptoms. When behaviors of normal motivation cross over into dysfunctional patterns and begin to affect one’s life, then there may be cause for concern, which is strikingly similar to that of the symptoms of anorexia and bulimia. Dieting may be done in safe and cautious ways, but once dysfunctional behaviors begin to develop and individuals destructively work towards their thinner, leaner, body, concern over whether he or she has a problem begins to rise.

The purpose of this investigation is to shed light on what types of eating characteristics a male and female will have within distinct sports. It is my hypothesis that females will exhibit nearly the same irregular perceptions of body type as men in the “large body type sport” (rugby), meaning that both genders will want to be more muscular in order to optimize their performance within the sport and move toward a goal of becoming the “ideal” body type that the sport necessitates. They will exhibit almost equal amounts of muscularly dysmorphic sympotoms, with the males slightly exceeding the females by exhibiting more MD symptoms. This would be due to past research supporting that more males than females desire a larger body type as well as some sports are weight-dependent.

In the “small body type sport” (cross-country), scores for both populations will be significantly lower than that of rugby. In addition, there will be a larger gap between sport for females since previous research supports the desire of females to be thinner, which would only be intensified by being in a sport that necessitates it. Their predisposition to be thin will be drastically enhanced, leaving them to show little or no signs of MD within the sport of cross-country. I hypothesize that they will, in turn, exhibit many symptoms of opposite eating pathologies (anorexia and bulimia nervosa), since it is beneficial to weigh less in this particular sport. This could show that gender and sport play a role in determining the type of eating pattern one will engage in. Also, Body Mass Index (BMI) will also be calculated for each participant for their actual and ideal weights. BMI means will be obtained for both males and females for each sport to determine which gender desires to be bigger and which to be smaller as well as whether or not the person is currently normal, under or over weight so as to establish type of eating pathology symptoms they are demonstrating. Correlational analyses of body satisfaction, influence of outside pressures, weight control methods, and outside perceptions will be conducted in order to examine media effects on body image and weight control methods on outside perceptions. .

Method

Participants

A convenient sample of 120 undergraduate athletes (40 male rugby players, 20 male cross-country runners, 40 female rugby players, and 20 female cross-country runners) will be selected due to contrasts in body size.

Questionnaire

The Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS) is a brief, valid 19-item self-report measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia symptoms, with 5 built-in subscales (Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, 2002). This scale, combined with selected questions from the Saint Bonaventure University Student Athlete Health Survey, will be given to all participants.

Results

A 2 x 2 (Gender x Sport) analysis of variance will be conducted with the MASS (first 19 questions) serving as the dependent measure. In addition, correlational analyses will be conducted for body satisfaction, influence of outside pressures, weight control methods, and outside perceptions to determine if the data support previous research on these specific relationships.

Discussion

One thing to keep in mind is that certain individuals may gravitate toward a certain sport. It is indeed rare for someone with an underdeveloped body to try out for the football team. This idea of self-selection may demonstrate that specific people with particular attitudes play specific sports. It is, however, not true that everyone within certain sports develops an eating disorder.

Future research should investigate different sports in order to determine whether or not there are certain specific types of irregular eating patterns associated with particular sports. In order to help answer why certain people acquire these types of disorders, there is a need for longitudinal studies in this area, which will help to expose the critical age for the development of disordered eating. In addition, an exploration of contributing factors and the distinctive psychopatholgies is warranted since research and characterization are in the preliminary stages.

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